This little (usually 512 bytes) piece of code is called the "Bootloader" and it is in an area of the memory of the microcontroller - at the end of the address space - that can't be reprogrammed as a regular sketch and had been designed for such purpose. If no connection is detected, the execution is passed to the code of your sketch. The behaviour described above happens thanks to a special piece of code that is executed at every reset of the microcontroller and that looks for a sketch to be uploaded from the serial/USB port using a specific protocol and speed. It is enough to connect it to the computer USB port and press the "Upload" icon to start a process that transfers your sketch into the Flash memory of the microcontroller. What makes an Arduino what it is? Many things, but one of the most important ones is the way every Arduino board is easily programmed with the Arduino Software (IDE).
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